Optimizing educational environments: microclimate management and thermal comfort in learning spaces

The importance of sustainable school design in hot climates

Sustainable school design is becoming increasingly important worldwide, particularly in the UAE, where schools are significant energy consumers. This study explores the impact of courtyard orientation on microclimate and energy consumption in UAE schools, utilizing a standardized template applied across 70 existing schools. By employing advanced simulation tools, ENVI-met and IES-ve software, the research provides a comprehensive analysis of air temperature and energy use related to different courtyard orientations, specifically on key dates of September 21st and March 21st, representing seasonal variations.

The results indicate that North-facing courtyards consistently provide cooler microclimates compared to other orientations. Specifically, North-facing courtyards showed temperature reductions of 1.31°C in September and 1.9°C in March compared to the least favorable orientations. This orientation recorded the lowest average mass temperatures of 29.36°C in September and 25.13°C in March, surpassing the West-facing orientation by 0.39°C and 0.45°C, respectively. The primary factor for this improvement is the reduced solar radiation exposure on East-West aligned courtyards, which significantly lowers the heat gain. Additionally, the study assessed Physiologically Equivalent Temperature (PET) readings and cooling demands, both of which were found to be lower in North-facing courtyards. Cooling load reductions varied between 1% and 4%, depending on the day, further emphasizing the efficiency of this orientation.

These findings suggest that strategic courtyard orientation is a critical design consideration for enhancing thermal comfort and energy efficiency in school buildings. The implications of this research are significant for sustainable design and construction practices. By highlighting the benefits of optimal courtyard orientation, this study offers practical solutions for reducing energy consumption and improving the indoor and outdoor thermal environments of schools. These insights contribute to the broader goal of developing greener, more sustainable educational facilities, particularly in hot climates like the UAE.

Existing challenges and sustainable strategies for schools in hot climates

As the global emphasis on sustainable and energy-efficient practices in the built environment continues to grow, educational institutions, particularly schools, are recognized as significant contributors to energy consumption (Salameh et al., 2024; Hernandez, Burke, and Lewis 2008; Dias Pereira et al., 2014; Al-Sallal, 2010; Emirates Green Building, 2023; Jesse, 2023; Brebbia and Beriatos, 2011; Salameh, and Touqan, 2023a; Salameh and Touqan, 2023b). In regions characterized by hot climates, such as the UAE, schools face distinct challenges associated with elevated temperatures, leading to substantial energy usage for maintaining comfortable indoor environments. Various studies have highlighted the increased energy demands in educational buildings, attributing this to the necessity for air conditioning and ventilation systems to counter the effects of extreme heat (Elnazir et al., 2017; Hossin and AlShehhi, 2024). For instance, research by Al-Naemi (2024) underscores the heightened energy consumption in schools, emphasizing the urgency of adopting sustainable measures to address these challenges. Recent data from the Emirates Green Building Council shows that UAE schools have high energy demands, with consumption rates of 233 kWh/m2/year and 4,364 kWh/student/year, highlighting the need for sustainable practices as the number of educational institutions grows (Emirates Green Building, 2023). The UAE is home to 639 public and 580 private schools, serving over a million students, underscoring the importance of energy-efficient design in educational settings.

Classroom design and student behavior play crucial roles in energy consumption. Research emphasizes early integration of energy considerations in school design to reduce heat gain and energy use (Emirates Green Building, 2023; Jesse, 2023; Brebbia and Beriatos, 2011; Salameh, and Touqan, 2023a; Salameh and Touqan, 2023b). Studies highlight various strategies for enhancing sustainability in schools. Elkhapery et al. (2023) and Salameh et al. (2024) suggest cost-effective sustainable modifications. Albattah and Bande (2023) focus on fostering environmental sustainability awareness among students, while Rahmani et al. (2023) demonstrate that window shading techniques can significantly reduce energy consumption. AL-NAEMI’s (2024) study advocates for comprehensive life cycle assessments in schools, aiming for carbon neutrality through solar panel installations. This effort aligns with global sustainable goals and Qatar’s commitment to environmentally friendly infrastructure, reflecting a broader push for eco-conscious educational facilities as emphasized by Al Dakheel et al. (2018), who promote adherence to Estidama standards and the use of renewable technologies. Moreover, Salameh (2024) stress the significance of tackling energy consumption in schools, particularly in hot climates, to achieve environmental sustainability. The authors advocate for innovative design strategies and architectural interventions to mitigate the environmental impact of educational buildings. Their work underscores the need for a comprehensive approach that integrates energy-efficient technologies and sustainable design principles to create environmentally responsible learning environments.

A study by Díaz-López et al. (2022) further emphasizes the need for context-specific solutions to address energy consumption in schools in hot climates. The authors suggest a combination of passive design strategies, renewable energy integration, and efficient building materials as crucial elements in achieving sustainable and energy-efficient school buildings. Incorporating energy-efficient measures right from the design stage is crucial for reducing schools’ energy consumption. Research underscores the impact of architectural design and occupant behavior on energy demand, advocating for the use of solar power, efficient layouts, and passive elements like courtyards and their orientation to improve thermal comfort and sustainability in educational settings (Emirates Green Building, 2023; Jesse, 2023; Brebbia and Beriatos, 2011; Salameh, and Touqan, 2023a; Salameh and Touqan, 2023b).

The role of courtyards in enhancing thermal comfort and energy efficiency

Moreover other studies have highlighted a range of sustainable strategies for school buildings beyond the traditional use of courtyards, aiming to enhance energy efficiency and thermal performance in various climates.

Al-Khatatbeh & Ma’bdeh (2017) in the UAE focused on modifying building materials to improve lighting and thermal conditions.
In Saudi Arabia, strategies like window and roof shading, landscaping, night ventilation, controlling infiltration, and optimizing classroom occupancy were utilized to mitigate heat gain, as explored by Abanomi and Jones (2005).
Salameh et al. (2024) in Iran advocated for architectural adjustments such as strategic space arrangements, optimal window-to-wall ratios, and effective shading and orientation to develop sustainable schools.
Harputlugil, Hensen, and Celebi (2011) recommended cluster design for schools in Turkey across varying climates for its effectiveness in controlling heat gain and loss.
Gil-Baez, Padura, and Huelva (2019) implemented passive refurbishment strategies including insulation, shading, and glazing in schools within mild Mediterranean and diverse climates.
In South Korea, a decision support model to reduce electricity use in schools was introduced by Hong, Koo, and Jeong (2012), accommodating the region’s extreme seasonal variations.
Ramli et al. (2012) in Malaysia examined the impact of Green School Guidelines, focusing on lighting and air quality improvements.
The importance of landscaping in schoolyards for aesthetic and cooling benefits in Southeastern Michigan was emphasized by Matsuoka and Kaplan (2008).
El-Nwsany et al. (2019) in Egypt discussed sustainable water management techniques and provided comprehensive guidelines for more sustainable school designs.
Heracleous et al. (2021) in Cyprus assessed the effects of solar shading devices on balancing cooling needs and reducing unwanted energy gains.
In the UAE, Salameh et al. (2023a) enhanced student satisfaction and academic performance through strategic courtyard design in schools.

Moreover Chen et al. (2024) studied the optimization of energy use, light, and thermal comfort in teaching atriums using NSGA-II and machine learning. They found that optimized atrium designs greatly improved light comfort and reduced energy consumption. Key factors identified were Window-to-Wall Ratio and Skylight-to-Roof Ratio.

Leccese et al. (2020) developed a method to assess lighting quality in educational rooms using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). Their approach goes beyond just measuring illuminance levels, considering various factors affecting visual comfort. Applied in classrooms at the University of Pisa, the method was validated by a survey, showing strong alignment with user perceptions. This highlights the importance of a comprehensive approach to lighting in educational settings.

Mahmoud and Abdallah (2022) focused on enhancing outdoor thermal comfort in school courtyards in hot climates. Using the ENVI-met model, they tested various shading strategies, finding that hybrid shading with trees significantly reduced PET values, improving comfort. Their research emphasizes the value of combining shading and vegetation to create cooler outdoor spaces in schools.

Babich et al. (2023) compared indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort standards in school buildings. They identified inconsistencies within and across standards like EN16798 and ASHRAE 55. The study calls for more consistent criteria and suggests integrating IAQ and thermal comfort considerations to improve decision-making for school environments.

Zhao et al. (2024) evaluated the effects of sun sails and mist-spray systems on outdoor thermal comfort in a school courtyard in Hunan, China. They found that combining these strategies reduced PET by up to 14.43°C, with sun sails being especially effective. The study suggests that integrating shading and misting can significantly enhance outdoor comfort in school settings.

Consequently, even many studies have focused on green school initiatives, but many have overlooked the role of courtyards as fundamental passive design elements. Courtyards are essential for enhancing thermal comfort and energy efficiency, yet their potential has not been fully explored in existing research. This research suggests an opportunity for deeper investigation into how courtyards orientation can contribute to energy conservation and support sustainable practices in school architecture. Emphasizing courtyards in the design of educational facilities could play a crucial role in reducing energy use and promoting environmental sustainability.

The importance of courtyard orientation in school design

Courtyards, historically integral elements in architectural design, have been acknowledged for their potential to contribute to thermal comfort and energy efficiency, especially in hot climates (Wu, et al., 2023; Cheng and Lin, 2024; Zhu, et al., 2023; Qian, et al., 2023; Zhao, et al., 2024; Al-Hafith, et al., 2023; Elgheznawy, and Eltarabily, 2021; Salameh et al., 2022. However, existing literature often generalizes the impact of courtyards in buildings, overlooking their specific application in educational institutions like schools. While studies exploring the orientation of courtyards and their influence on air temperature and energy consumption in schools are limited, their importance is increasingly recognized.

Salameh, et al. (2024) investigates the thermal performance of courtyards in school buildings, emphasizing the influence of orientation on indoor air temperature. The study employs advanced simulation tools to analyze microclimate variations and assess the potential for energy savings through optimized courtyard orientation. Salvati, et al. (2022) highlight the potential of courtyards as microclimatic modifiers, reducing the reliance on mechanical cooling systems in school buildings. However, this research primarily focuses on residential applications (Abuhussain et al., 2022; Verma, and Bano, 2023), underscoring the necessity for investigations tailored specifically to educational infrastructure.

Beside that a recent study by Salameh (2024) contribute to the understanding of courtyard design in schools, emphasizing its impact on thermal comfort and energy efficiency. However, a comprehensive exploration of courtyard orientation within school buildings and its direct correlation with air temperature and energy consumption remains a research gap, as most of the research has examined the thermal effects of courtyards and their orientation in residential and general building settings (Al-Hemiddi & Megren Al-Saud, 2001; Zhang et al., 2017; Feroz, 2015; Sun, Luo, and Bai, 2023), less attention has been given to their specific impact within school environments, which differ markedly in terms of occupancy, operational times, and architectural design. This oversight highlights a significant gap in literature, particularly in the exploration of courtyard design and orientation in schools situated in hot arid climates such as the UAE. Schools are notable for their high energy consumption, and while courtyards are recognized for their potential to enhance thermal comfort and energy efficiency, the focus has predominantly been on broader structural applications rather than tailored approaches for educational settings.

Filling the research gap: Exploring the impact of courtyard orientation in UAE schools

Research Gap: Despite acknowledging the role of courtyards in reducing energy consumption, there is a marked scarcity of studies that specifically investigate the orientation of courtyards within school buildings. This research identifies a critical need for detailed research that not only bridges this gap but also enhances understanding of how courtyard orientation affects thermal efficiency in educational settings, providing actionable insights for architects and planners to design more sustainable schools in hot climates.

The methodology of this research was meticulously developed to assess the impact of courtyard orientation on microclimates and energy consumption in educational buildings in UAE. Employing a comprehensive approach (Figure 1), the study utilized field investigations, advanced simulation tools, and extensive quantitative analyses. This allowed for an in-depth exploration of how different orientations affect microclimate conditions and energy efficiency. Detailed statistical methods were applied to analyze data, with a particular focus on contrasting schools with oriented courtyards with superior microclimate conditions against those with less optimal orientations.

The study was designed to bridge the gap in existing research by specifically focusing on the distinct impacts of courtyard orientations on school microclimates and energy use, thus contributing significantly to the field of sustainable school architecture in hot climates. The next section of this research will present the findings and discuss their broader implications, reinforcing the importance of courtyard orientation in architectural design for educational settings in arid regions. This structured approach not only addresses specific research needs but also enriches the discourse on designing sustainable educational environments in challenging climates.

Assessing courtyard orientation in UAE school design

This research aims to investigate one of the public-school prototypes in the UAE, a region known for its hot climate. The UAE, situated between latitudes 22°50′N and 26°N, and longitudes 51°E to 56°25′E, experiences extreme temperatures with average highs reaching up to 41°C in August (World Bank Climate, 2024). The arid conditions and prevalent northwest winds present significant challenges for building design and energy consumption, highlighting the need for sustainable and efficient architectural solutions to mitigate the intense heat.

The Ministry of Public Works, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, has developed several templates for public school designs since 1963. These templates have undergone numerous changes and modifications. Table 1 outlines the most important design stages for public schools. Among these templates, some designs have been more prevalent, all featuring courtyards as central areas but in varying proportions and ratios. Some courtyards are fully or partially covered.

Table 1. The progression of public school building designs in the UAE (Ministry of Education -UAE 2013; Aboullail, 2016).

This study will focus on one public school prototype, specifically the Khateb wa Alami Design (S), to examine the impact of courtyard orientation on enhancing the thermal conditions of the school building. The goal is to determine whether the orientation affects energy consumption, potentially opening the door for further investigations into the orientation effects of other prototypes.

Justification for Focus:

Budget Impact: Public school buildings in the UAE accounted for approximately 18.5% of the education budget, which was around 16.43% of the total national budget in 2010 (Ministry of Education – UAE, 2013). This significant expenditure highlights the importance of optimizing school designs for energy efficiency and sustainability.
Design Uniformity: Typically, prototypical school designs are used nationwide without considering orientation or climatic differences, negatively impacting thermal performance, as observed in Saudi Arabia (Abanomi and Jones, 2005).
Regulatory Framework: Both private and public schools in the UAE are subject to regulations enforced by the Ministry of Education (Aboullail, 2016). However, these regulations do not specify standards for the orientation, shape, type, or proportions of courtyards. They only mandate that playground areas should be double the total area of classrooms (Ministry of Education, 2015).
Standardized Design Template: The selected school case study (S), identified as KAT, represents a series of public ministry schools across the UAE. These schools follow a standardized design template prescribed by the Ministry of Education, replicated in over 70 schools, ensuring uniformity in research conditions. This template’s application in various orientations (Figure 2), without considering their impact on the school’s microclimate and thermal conditions, provides a unique opportunity for study.

On-site data collection included using meters to measure air temperatures